Shikonin / GSH Cancer Research Results

SK, Shikonin: Click to Expand ⟱
Features:
The (R)-enantiomer of alkannin is known as shikonin, and the racemic mixture of the two is known as shikalkin.
Shikonin is a naphthoquinone derivative primarily isolated from the roots of plants in the Boraginaceae family (e.g., Lithospermum erythrorhizon).
Shikonin is the main active component of a Chinese medicinal plant 'Zi Cao'
-Shikonin is a major component of zicao (purple gromwell, the dried root of Lithospermum erythrorhizon), a Chinese herbal medicine with anti-inflammatory properties
-Quinone methides (QMs) are highly reactive intermediates formed from natural compounds like shikonin
-ic50 cancer cells 1-10uM, normal cells >10uM

-known as Glycolysis inhibitor: ( inhibit pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2*******), a key enzyme in the glycolytic pathway)

Available from mcsformulas.com Shikonin Pro Liposomal, 30 mg
Also In Glycolysis Inhibithree(100 mg PHLORIZIN,10 mg TANSHINONE IIA, 8 mg Shikonin)

-Note half-life15-30mins or 8hr?.
BioAv low, poor water solubility
Pathways:
- usually induce ROS production in cancer cells, and reduce ROS in normal cells.
- ROS↑ related: MMP↓(ΔΨm), ER Stress↑, GRP78↑, Ca+2↑, Cyt‑c↑, Caspases↑, DNA damage↑, cl-PARP↑, HSP↓,
- Lowers AntiOxidant defense in Cancer Cells: NRF2↓, TrxR↓**, SOD↓, GSH↓">GSH↓ Catalase↓ GPx4↓
- Raises AntiOxidant defense in Normal Cells: ROS↓, NRF2↑, SOD↑, GSH↑">GSH↑, Catalase↑,
- lowers Inflammation : NF-kB↓, COX2↓, p38↓, Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines : NLRP3↓, IL-1β↓, TNF-α↓, IL-6↓, IL-8↓
- inhibit Growth/Metastases : TumMeta↓, TumCG↓, EMT↓, MMPs↓, MMP2↓, MMP9↓, IGF-1↓, uPA↓, VEGF↓, FAK↓, NF-κB↓, TGF-β↓, ERK↓
- cause Cell cycle arrest : TumCCA↑, cyclin D1↓, cyclin E↓, CDK2↓, CDK4↓,
- inhibits Migration/Invasion : TumCMig↓, TumCI↓, FAK↓, ERK↓, EMT↓,
- inhibits glycolysis /Warburg Effect and ATP depletion : HIF-1α↓, PKM2↓, cMyc↓, GLUT1↓, LDH↓, LDHA↓, HK2↓, PFKs↓, PDKs↓, ECAR↓, OXPHOS↓, GRP78↑, GlucoseCon↓
- inhibits angiogenesis↓ : VEGF↓, HIF-1α↓, EGFR↓, Integrins↓,
- Others: PI3K↓, AKT↓, JAK↓, STAT↓, β-catenin↓, AMPK, ERK↓, JNK, P53↑,
- Synergies: chemo-sensitization, chemoProtective, RadioSensitizer, Others(review target notes), Neuroprotective, Cognitive, Renoprotection, Hepatoprotective, CardioProtective,

- Selectivity: Cancer Cells vs Normal Cells
Rank Pathway / Target Axis Direction Primary Effect Notes / Cancer Relevance
1 PKM2-mediated aerobic glycolysis (Warburg metabolism) ↓ Energy / biomass restriction Key, repeatedly reported mechanism: shikonin suppresses PKM2 activity and PKM2-driven glycolysis in multiple tumor models, with downstream growth inhibition and apoptosis
2 ROS accumulation / oxidative stress ↑ ROS Redox overload Common upstream trigger that drives mitochondrial dysfunction and regulated cell death programs; often precedes necroptosis/apoptosis signaling
3 Necroptosis core cascade (RIPK1 → RIPK3 → MLKL) ↑ Programmed necrotic cell death Strong evidence across cancers (e.g., leukemia and nasopharyngeal carcinoma): shikonin increases RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL expression/activation; necroptosis inhibitors can blunt the effect
4 Mitochondrial integrity (ΔΨm) ↓ Mitochondrial dysfunction ROS-linked depolarization; acts as a pivot into intrinsic apoptosis and other death programs
5 Intrinsic apoptosis (BAX/BAK → Caspase-9/3) ↑ Programmed cell death Frequently observed; often framed as ROS → mitochondrial damage → caspase-dependent apoptosis
6 PKM2/STAT3 signaling axis ↓ Reduced survival & proliferation signaling In ESCC and related models, shikonin suppresses PKM2-driven glycolysis and down-modulates STAT3 pathway activity
7 NF-κB pathway ↓ Reduced pro-survival transcription Reported as part of multi-target suppression of inflammatory/anti-apoptotic programs in several tumor models and reviews
8 PI3K–AKT (± mTOR) ↓ Growth & resistance pathway inhibition Often described as sensitizing cells to apoptosis/TRAIL; may be secondary to oxidative stress and metabolic collapse
9 Stress MAPKs (JNK / p38) ↑ Pro-death stress signaling Common downstream response to ROS; can reinforce apoptosis and other death outcomes
10 Ferroptosis-related axis (lipid peroxidation; GPX4) ↑ lipid perox / ↓ GPX4 Iron-dependent oxidative death Reported prominently for acetylshikonin (a shikonin derivative): ROS-associated lipid peroxidation with reduced GPX4 expression alongside RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL activation
11 Endoplasmic reticulum stress (UPR / ERS) ↑ Proteotoxic stress signaling Frequently mentioned in leukemia-focused mechanism summaries and broader reviews as contributory to growth arrest and death
12 Multiple regulated death programs (apoptosis / necroptosis / ferroptosis / pyroptosis) ↑ (context-dependent) Broader cell-death engagement Recent reviews emphasize that shikonin can engage several programmed cell death modalities depending on cell context and dosing
Rank Pathway / Target Axis Direction Primary Effect Notes / Cancer Relevance Ref
1 PKM2-mediated aerobic glycolysis (Warburg metabolism) ↓ PKM2 activity / ↓ glycolysis Energy & biomass restriction Demonstrates shikonin (and analogs) inhibit cancer glycolysis, reducing glucose consumption/lactate production via PKM2 targeting (ref)
2 PKM2 → STAT3 signaling axis ↓ PKM2-driven signaling / ↓ STAT3 pathway Reduced survival & proliferation ESCC study: shikonin suppresses PKM2-mediated aerobic glycolysis and regulates PKM2/STAT3 signaling (ref)
3 Necroptosis (RIPK1 → RIPK3 → MLKL) ↑ RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL Programmed necrotic cell death Nasopharyngeal carcinoma: shikonin induces necroptosis with upregulation of RIPK1/RIPK3/MLKL (with ROS involvement) (ref)
4 ROS accumulation ↑ ROS Oxidative stress trigger Colon cancer model: shikonin increases intracellular ROS; ROS functions upstream of apoptosis (ref)
5 Mitochondrial apoptosis (Caspase-9/3) ↑ Caspase-9/3 Programmed cell death Same colon cancer study shows shikonin increases caspase-3 and caspase-9 activity (mitochondria-mediated apoptosis) (ref)
6 ER stress / UPR (PERK → eIF2α → CHOP) ↑ Proteotoxic stress apoptosis signaling Colon cancer: shikonin-induced apoptosis mediated by PERK/eIF2α/CHOP ER-stress pathway (ref)
7 Autophagic flux (autophagosome–lysosome completion) ↓ autophagic flux (blocked) ROS + apoptosis amplification Colorectal cancer: shikonin induces ROS and apoptosis by inhibiting autophagic flux (ref)
8 NF-κB signaling ↓ NF-κB activity Reduced pro-survival transcription Pancreatic cancer xenograft/mechanistic study: shikonin suppresses NF-κB activity and NF-κB–regulated gene products (ref)
9 PI3K–AKT–mTOR (stemness / chemoresistance axis) ↓ PI3K/AKT/mTOR Reduced survival & stemness Chemoresistant lung cancer CSC context: shikonin attenuates PI3K–Akt–mTOR pathway and reduces cancer stemness (ref)
10 Cell cycle control (p21; G2/M arrest) ↑ p21 / ↑ G2/M arrest Proliferation block Gastric cancer (AGS): shikonin induces cell-cycle arrest linked to p21 regulation (ref)
11 Invasion / metastasis programs (NF-κB-linked) ↓ invasion Anti-invasive phenotype Reports shikonin inhibits tumor invasion via down-regulation of NF-κB–related mechanisms in a high-metastatic tumor model (ref)
12 Chemosensitization via glycolysis suppression ↓ glycolysis / ↑ cisplatin sensitivity Combination benefit NSCLC: shikonin inhibits glycolysis and sensitizes cells to cisplatin (explicitly connecting metabolic suppression to chemosensitization) (ref)


GSH, Glutathione: Click to Expand ⟱
Source:
Type:
Glutathione (GSH) is a thiol antioxidant that scavenges reactive oxygen species (ROS), resulting in the formation of oxidized glutathione (GSSG). Decreased amounts of GSH and a decreased GSH/GSSG ratio in tissues are biomarkers of oxidative stress.
Glutathione is a powerful antioxidant found in every cell of the body, composed of three amino acids: cysteine, glutamine, and glycine. It plays a crucial role in protecting cells from oxidative stress, detoxifying harmful substances, and supporting the immune system.
cancer cells can have elevated levels of glutathione, which may help them survive in the oxidative environment created by the immune response and chemotherapy. This can make cancer cells more resistant to treatment.
While glutathione can be obtained from certain foods (like fruits, vegetables, and meats), its absorption from supplements is debated. Some people take N-acetylcysteine (NAC) or other precursors to boost glutathione levels, but the effects on cancer prevention or treatment are still being studied.
Depleting glutathione (GSH) to raise reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a strategy that has been explored in cancer research and therapy.
Many cancer cells have altered redox states and may rely on GSH to survive. Increasing ROS levels can induce stress in these cells, potentially leading to cell death.
Certain drugs and compounds can deplete GSH levels. For example, agents like buthionine sulfoximine (BSO) inhibit the synthesis of GSH, leading to its depletion.
Cancer cells tend to exhibit higher levels of intracellular GSH, possibly as an adaptive response to a higher metabolism and thus higher steady-state levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS).

"...intracellular glutathione (GSH) exhibits an astounding antioxidant activity in scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS)..."
"Cancer cells have a high level of GSH compared to normal cells."
"...cancer cells are affluent with high antioxidant levels, especially with GSH, whose appearance at an elevated concentration of ∼10 mM (10 times less in normal cells) detoxifies the cancer cells." "Therefore, GSH depletion can be assumed to be the key strategy to amplify the oxidative stress in cancer cells, enhancing the destruction of cancer cells by fruitful cancer therapy."

The loss of GSH is broadly known to be directly related to the apoptosis progression.
Scientific Papers found: Click to Expand⟱
2362- SK,    RIP1 and RIP3 contribute to shikonin-induced glycolysis suppression in glioma cells via increase of intracellular hydrogen peroxide
- in-vitro, GBM, U87MG - in-vivo, GBM, NA - in-vitro, GBM, U251
RIP1↑, RIP3↑, Glycolysis↓, G6PD↓, HK2↓, PKM2↓, H2O2↑, GSH↓, ROS↑,
3041- SK,    Promising Nanomedicines of Shikonin for Cancer Therapy
- Review, Var, NA
Glycolysis↓, TAMS↝, BioAv↓, Half-Life↝, P21↑, ERK↓, ROS↑, GSH↓, MMP↓, TrxR↓, MMP13↓, MMP2↓, MMP9↓, SIRT2↑, Hif1a↓, PKM2↓, TumCP↓, TumMeta↓, TumCI↓,
1346- SK,    An Oxidative Stress Mechanism of Shikonin in Human Glioma Cells
- in-vitro, GBM, U87MG - in-vitro, GBM, Hs683
NRF2↓, ROS↑, Apoptosis↑, Cyt‑c↑, GSH↓, MMP↓, P53↑, HO-1⇅,
2188- SK,    Molecular mechanism of shikonin inhibiting tumor growth and potential application in cancer treatment
- Review, Var, NA
ROS↑, EGFR↓, PI3K↓, Akt↓, angioG↓, Apoptosis↑, Necroptosis↑, GSH↓, Ca+2↓, MMP↓, ERK↓, p38↑, proCasp3↑, eff↓, VEGF↓, FOXO3↑, EGR1↑, SIRT1↑, RIP1↑, RIP3↑, BioAv↓, NF-kB↓, Half-Life↓,
1345- SK,    The Critical Role of Redox Homeostasis in Shikonin-Induced HL-60 Cell Differentiation via Unique Modulation of the Nrf2/ARE Pathway
- in-vitro, AML, HL-60
CD14↑, CD11b↑, ROS↑, GSH↓, GSH/GSSG↓, GPx↑, Catalase↓, Diff↑,
1344- SK,    Novel multiple apoptotic mechanism of shikonin in human glioma cells
- in-vitro, GBM, U87MG - in-vitro, GBM, Hs683 - in-vitro, GBM, M059K
ROS↑, GSH↓, MMP↓, P53↑, cl‑PARP↑, Catalase↓, SOD1↑, Bcl-2↓, BAX↑, eff↓,
1343- SK,    Simple ROS-responsive micelles loaded Shikonin for efficient ovarian cancer targeting therapy by disrupting intracellular redox homeostasis
- in-vitro, Ovarian, A2780S - in-vivo, NA, A2780S
*BioAv↓, ROS↑, GSH↓, TumCG↓,
1342- SK,    RIP1 and RIP3 contribute to shikonin-induced DNA double-strand breaks in glioma cells via increase of intracellular reactive oxygen species
- in-vitro, GBM, NA - in-vivo, NA, NA
RIP1↑, RIP3↑, DNAdam↑, ROS↑, GSH↓,
1284- SK,    Shikonin induces ferroptosis in multiple myeloma via GOT1-mediated ferritinophagy
- in-vitro, Melanoma, RPMI-8226 - in-vitro, Melanoma, U266
Ferroptosis↑, LDH↓, ROS↑, Iron↑, lipid-P↑, ATP↓, HMGB1↓, GPx4↓, MDA↑, SOD↓, GSH↓,
2203- SK,    Shikonin suppresses small cell lung cancer growth via inducing ATF3-mediated ferroptosis to promote ROS accumulation
- in-vitro, Lung, NA
TumCP↓, Apoptosis↓, TumCMig↓, TumCI↓, Ferroptosis↑, ERK↓, GPx4↓, 4-HNE↑, ROS↑, GSH↓, ATF3↑, HDAC1↓, ac‑Histones↑,
2202- SK,    Enhancing Tumor Therapy of Fe(III)-Shikonin Supramolecular Nanomedicine via Triple Ferroptosis Amplification
- in-vitro, Var, NA
Iron↑, Ferroptosis↑, pH↝, H2O2↑, ROS↑, Fenton↑, GSH↓, GPx4↓, lipid-P↑,

Showing Research Papers: 1 to 11 of 11

* indicates research on normal cells as opposed to diseased cells
Total Research Paper Matches: 11

Pathway results for Effect on Cancer / Diseased Cells:


Redox & Oxidative Stress ⓘ

4-HNE↑, 1,   ATF3↑, 1,   Catalase↓, 2,   Fenton↑, 1,   Ferroptosis↑, 3,   GPx↑, 1,   GPx4↓, 3,   GSH↓, 11,   GSH/GSSG↓, 1,   H2O2↑, 2,   HO-1⇅, 1,   Iron↑, 2,   lipid-P↑, 2,   MDA↑, 1,   NRF2↓, 1,   ROS↑, 11,   SOD↓, 1,   SOD1↑, 1,   TrxR↓, 1,  

Mitochondria & Bioenergetics ⓘ

ATP↓, 1,   MMP↓, 4,  

Core Metabolism/Glycolysis ⓘ

G6PD↓, 1,   Glycolysis↓, 2,   ac‑Histones↑, 1,   HK2↓, 1,   LDH↓, 1,   PKM2↓, 2,   SIRT1↑, 1,   SIRT2↑, 1,  

Cell Death ⓘ

Akt↓, 1,   Apoptosis↓, 1,   Apoptosis↑, 2,   BAX↑, 1,   Bcl-2↓, 1,   proCasp3↑, 1,   Cyt‑c↑, 1,   Ferroptosis↑, 3,   Necroptosis↑, 1,   p38↑, 1,   RIP1↑, 3,  

DNA Damage & Repair ⓘ

DNAdam↑, 1,   P53↑, 2,   cl‑PARP↑, 1,  

Cell Cycle & Senescence ⓘ

P21↑, 1,  

Proliferation, Differentiation & Cell State ⓘ

Diff↑, 1,   ERK↓, 3,   FOXO3↑, 1,   HDAC1↓, 1,   PI3K↓, 1,   TumCG↓, 1,  

Migration ⓘ

Ca+2↓, 1,   CD11b↑, 1,   MMP13↓, 1,   MMP2↓, 1,   MMP9↓, 1,   RIP3↑, 3,   TumCI↓, 2,   TumCMig↓, 1,   TumCP↓, 2,   TumMeta↓, 1,  

Angiogenesis & Vasculature ⓘ

angioG↓, 1,   EGFR↓, 1,   EGR1↑, 1,   Hif1a↓, 1,   TAMS↝, 1,   VEGF↓, 1,  

Immune & Inflammatory Signaling ⓘ

CD14↑, 1,   HMGB1↓, 1,   NF-kB↓, 1,  

Cellular Microenvironment ⓘ

pH↝, 1,  

Drug Metabolism & Resistance ⓘ

BioAv↓, 2,   eff↓, 2,   Half-Life↓, 1,   Half-Life↝, 1,  

Clinical Biomarkers ⓘ

EGFR↓, 1,   LDH↓, 1,  
Total Targets: 76

Pathway results for Effect on Normal Cells:


Drug Metabolism & Resistance ⓘ

BioAv↓, 1,  
Total Targets: 1

Scientific Paper Hit Count for: GSH, Glutathione
11 Shikonin
Query results interpretion may depend on "conditions" listed in the research papers.
Such Conditions may include : 
  -low or high Dose
  -format for product, such as nano of lipid formations
  -different cell line effects
  -synergies with other products 
  -if effect was for normal or cancerous cells

Filter Conditions: Pro/AntiFlg:%  IllCat:%  CanType:%  Cells:%  prod#:150  Target#:137  State#:%  Dir#:1
  wNotes=0  sortOrder:rid,rpid

 

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